Rechargeable battery with voltage activated current interrupter

ABSTRACT

A high energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery includes an anode energy layer, a cathode energy layer, a separator for separating the anode and the cathode energy layers, an anode current collector for transferring electrons to and from the anode energy layer, the battery characterized by a maximum safe voltage for avoiding overcharge, and an interrupt layer that interrupts current within the battery upon exposure to voltage in excess of the maximum safe voltage. The interrupt layer is between the anode energy layer and current collector. When unactivated, it is laminated to the cathode current collector, conducting current therethrough. When activated, the interrupt layer delaminates from the anode current collector, interrupting current therethrough. The interrupt layer includes a voltage sensitive decomposable component that upon exposure to voltage in excess of the maximum safe voltage decomposes, evolving a gas, delaminating the interrupt layer from the anode current collector, interrupting current therethrough.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 (e) to thefollowing three Provisional Applications: U.S. Provisional ApplicationNo. 62/084,454, filed Nov. 25, 2014, titled “Battery Safety Device;”U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/114,007, filed Feb. 9, 2015, titled“Rechargeable Battery with Voltage Activated Current Interrupter;” andU.S. Provisional Application No. 62/114,508, filed Feb. 10, 2015, titled“Rechargeable Battery with Internal Current Limiter and Interrupter,”the disclosures of which are all hereby incorporate by reference herein,each in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Technical Field

This disclosure relates to an internal current limiter or currentinterrupter used to protect a battery in the event of an internal shortcircuit or overcharge leads to thermal runaway. In particular, itrelates to a high energy density rechargeable (HEDR) battery withimproved safety.

Background

There is a need for rechargeable battery systems with enhanced safetywhich have a high energy density and hence are capable of storing anddelivering large amounts of electrical energy per unit volume and/orweight. Such stable high energy battery systems have significant utilityin a number of applications including military equipment, communicationequipment, and robotics.

An example of a high energy density rechargeable (HEDR) battery commonlyin use is the lithium-ion battery. A lithium-ion battery is arechargeable battery wherein lithium ions move from the negativeelectrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back whencharging. Lithium-ion batteries can be dangerous under some conditionsand can pose a safety hazard. The fire energy content(electrical+chemical) of lithium cobalt-oxide cells is about 100 to 150kJ per A h, most of it chemical. If overcharged or overheated, Li-ionbatteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture. In extreme casesthis can lead to combustion. Also, short-circuiting the battery, eitherexternally or internally, will cause the battery to overheat andpossibly to catch fire.

Thermal Runaway:

If the heat generated by a lithium ion battery exceeds its heatdissipation capacity, the battery can become susceptible to thermalrunaway, resulting in overheating and, under some circumstances, todestructive results such as fire or violent explosion. Thermal runawayis a positive feedback loop wherein an increase in temperature changesthe system so as to cause further increases in temperature. The excessheat can result from battery mismanagement, battery defect, accident, orother causes. However, the excess heat generation often results fromincreased joule heating due to excessive internal current or fromexothermic reactions between the positive and negative electrodes.Excessive internal current can result from a variety of causes, but alowering of the internal resistance due to separator short circuit isone possible cause. Heat resulting from a separator short circuit cancause a further breach within the separator, leading to a mixing of thereagents of the negative and positive electrodes and the generation offurther heat due to the resultant exothermic reaction.

Internal Short Circuit:

Lithium ion batteries employ a separator between the negative andpositive electrodes to electrically separate the two electrodes from oneanother while allowing lithium ions to pass through. When the batteryperforms work by passing electrons through an external circuit, thepermeability of the separator to lithium ions enables the battery toclose the circuit. Short circuiting the separator by providing aconductive path across it allows the battery to discharge rapidly. Ashort circuit across the separator can result from improper charging anddischarging. More particularly, improper charging and discharging canlead to the deposition of a metallic lithium dendrite within theseparator so as to provide a conductive path for electrons from oneelectrode to the other. The lower resistance of this conductive pathallows for rapid discharge and the generation of significant joule heat.Overheating and thermal runaway can result.

Overcharge:

In a lithium-ion battery, useful work is performed when electrons flowthrough a closed external circuit. However, in order to maintain chargeneutrality, for each electron that flows through the external circuit,there must be a corresponding lithium ion that is transported from oneelectrode to the other. The electric potential driving this transport isachieved by oxidizing a transition metal. For example, cobalt (Co), fromCo³⁺ to Co⁴⁺ during charge and reduced from Co4⁴⁺ to Co³⁺ duringdischarge. Conventionally, Li_(1−x)CoO₂ may be employed, where thecoefficient χ represents the molar fraction of both the Li ion and theoxidative state of CoO₂, viz., Co³⁺ or Co⁴⁺. Employing theseconventions, the positive electrode half-reaction for the lithium cobaltbattery is represented as follows:LiCoO₂⇄Li_(1−x)CoO₂ +xLi⁺ +xe ⁻

The negative electrode half reaction is represented as follows:xLi⁺ +xe ⁻ +xC₆ ⇄xLiC₆

The cobalt electrode reaction is reversible only for x<0.5, limiting thedepth of discharge allowable. Overcharge leads to the synthesis ofcobalt (IV) oxide, as follows:LiCoO₂→Li⁺+CoO₂ +e ⁻

Overcharge is irreversible and can lead to thermal runaway.

What was needed was an internal battery feature for preventingovercharge. What was needed was an internal current limiter that couldlimit the rate of internal discharge resulting from an internal shortcircuit, including a short circuit of the separator.

SUMMARY

Provided in some implementations herein is a high energy densityrechargeable (HEDR) metal-ion battery that includes an anode energylayer, a cathode energy layer, a separator for separating the anodeenergy layer from the cathode energy layer, an anode current collectorfor transferring electrons to and from the anode energy layer, the highenergy density rechargeable metal-ion battery being rechargeable andcharacterized by a maximum safe voltage for avoiding overcharge; and aninterrupt layer activatable for interrupting current within the highenergy density rechargeable battery upon exposure to voltage in excessof the maximum safe voltage, the interrupt layer sandwiched between thecathode energy layer and the cathode current collector, the interruptlayer, when unactivated, being laminated to the anode current collectorfor conducting current therethrough, the interrupt layer, whenactivated, being delaminated from the anode current collector forinterrupting current therethrough, the interrupt layer including avoltage sensitive decomposable component for decomposing upon exposureto voltage in excess of the maximum safe voltage, the voltage sensitivedecomposable component for evolving a gas upon decomposition, theevolved gas for delaminating the interrupt layer from the anode currentcollector for interrupting current therethrough, whereby the high energydensity rechargeable metal-ion battery avoids overcharge by activationof the interrupt layer upon exposure to voltage in excess of the maximumsafe voltage for interrupting current therethough.

The following features can be present in the high energy densityrechargeable metal-ion battery in any suitable combination. Theinterrupt layer of the HEDR battery can be porous and have a compositionthat includes a ceramic powder defining an interstitial space; a binderfor partially filling the interstitial space for binding the ceramicpowder; and a conductive component dispersed within the binder forimparting conductivity to the interrupt layer, the interstitial spaceremaining partially unfilled for imparting porosity and permeability tothe interrupt layer. The interrupt layer can be compacted for reducingthe unfilled interstitial space and increasing the binding of theceramic powder by the binder. The interrupt layer can include greaterthan 30% ceramic powder by weight. The interrupt layer can includegreater than 50% ceramic powder by weight. The interrupt layer caninclude greater than 70% ceramic powder by weight. The interrupt layercan include greater than 75% ceramic powder by weight. The interruptlayer can include greater than 80% ceramic powder by weight. Theinterrupt layer can be permeable for transporting ionic charge carriers.The interrupt layer of the HEDR battery can be non-porous and have acomposition that includes a non-conductive filler; a binder for bindingthe non-conductive filler; and a conductive component dispersed withinthe binder for imparting conductivity to the interrupt layer. Theinterrupt layer can be impermeable to transport of ionic chargecarriers. The interrupt layer can be sacrificial at voltages above themaximum safe voltage for recharging. The interrupt layer can include aceramic powder that chemically decomposes above maximum safe voltage forevolving the gas. The gas can be fire retardant.

In a related aspect, provided herein is a method for interrupting arecharging process for a high energy density rechargeable metal-ionbattery upon exposure to voltage at or above a maximum safe voltage foravoiding overcharge, the high energy density rechargeable metal-ionbattery comprising an anode energy layer, a cathode energy layer, aseparator between the anode energy layer and the cathode energy layer,and an anode current collector for transferring electrons to and fromthe anode energy layer. The method includes overcharging the high energydensity rechargeable metal-ion battery for increasing the voltage abovethe maximum safe voltage for recharging; and interrupting theovercharging by evolving a gas by decomposition of a voltage sensitivedecomposable component within a interrupt layer laminated to the anodecurrent collector, the evolved gas delaminating the interrupt layer fromthe anode current collector, whereby the overcharging of the high energydensity rechargeable metal-ion battery is interrupted by evolution ofgas within the interrupt layer for delaminating the interrupt layer fromthe anode current collector.

In some implementations of the described subject matter, provided hereinis a high energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery of a type thatincludes an anode energy layer, a cathode energy layer, a separator forseparating the anode energy layer from the cathode energy layer, and ananode current collector for transferring electrons to and from the anodeenergy layer. The high energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery isrechargeable and characterized by a maximum safe voltage for avoidingovercharge. The improvement comprises an interrupt layer activatable forinterrupting current within the high energy density rechargeable batteryupon exposure to voltage in excess of the maximum safe voltage. Theinterrupt layer is sandwiched between the cathode energy layer and thecathode current collector. The interrupt layer, when unactivated, islaminated to the cathode current collector for conducting current therethrough. The interrupt layer, when activated, is delaminated from thecathode current collector for interrupting current there through. Theinterrupt layer includes a voltage sensitive decomposable component fordecomposing upon exposure to voltage in excess of the maximum safevoltage. The voltage sensitive decomposable component evolves a gas upondecomposition. The evolved gas serves to delaminate the interrupt layerfrom the cathode current collector for interrupting current therethrough. The high energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery avoidsthermal run-away in the overcharge by activation of the interrupt layerupon exposure to voltage in excess of the maximum safe voltage forinterrupting current there though.

In some embodiments, the interrupt layer may be porous and have acomposition that includes a ceramic powder defining an interstitialspace, a binder for partially filling the interstitial space for bindingthe ceramic powder, and a conductive component dispersed within thebinder for imparting conductivity to the interrupt layer. Theinterstitial space remains partially unfilled for imparting porosity andpermeability to the interrupt layer. The interrupt layer may becompacted for reducing the unfilled interstitial space and increasingthe binding of the ceramic powder by the binder. More particularly, theceramic powder may have a weight percent of the interrupt layer greaterthan 30%; alternatively, the ceramic powder may have a weight percent ofthe interrupt layer greater than 50%; alternatively, the ceramic powdermay have a weight percent of the interrupt layer greater than 70%;alternatively, the ceramic powder may have a weight percent of theinterrupt layer greater than 75%; alternatively, the ceramic powder mayhave a weight percent of the interrupt layer greater than 80%. Theinterrupt layer may be permeable for transporting ionic charge carriers.

In some embodiments, the interrupt layer is non-porous and has acomposition that includes a non-conductive filler, a binder for bindingthe non-conductive filler, and a conductive component dispersed withinthe binder for imparting conductivity to the interrupt layer.

In some embodiments, the interrupt layer is impermeable to transport ofionic charge carriers.

In some embodiments, the interrupt layer is sacrificial at voltagesabove the maximum safe voltage for recharging.

In some embodiments, the interrupt layer includes a ceramic powder thatchemically decomposes above maximum safe voltage for evolving the gas.The gas may be a fire retardant.

In a related aspect, a method is provided for interrupting a rechargingprocess for a high energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery uponexposure to voltage at or above a maximum safe voltage for avoidingovercharge. The high energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery is ofa type that includes an anode energy layer, a cathode energy layer, aseparator between the anode energy layer and the cathode energy layer,and an anode current collector for transferring electrons to and fromthe anode energy layer. In the first step of the method, the high energydensity rechargeable metal-ion battery commences overcharging, therebyincreasing the voltage above the maximum safe voltage for recharging.Then, in the second step of the method, the overcharging process of thefirst step is interrupted by evolving a gas by decomposition of avoltage sensitive decomposable component within an interrupt layerlaminated to the cathode current collector. The evolved gas serves todelaminate the interrupt layer from the cathode current collector forinterrupting the overcharging of the first step. The overcharging of thehigh energy density rechargeable metal-ion battery is interrupted byevolution of gas within the interrupt layer by delaminating theinterrupt layer from the cathode current collector. It is disclosedherein that a high energy density rechargeable battery may usefullyincorporate an internal non-sacrificial current limiter to protect thebattery in the event of an internal short circuit. The current limiteris a resistive film of fixed resistance interposed between the separatorand current collector. The fixed resistance of the resistive filmremains stable when the battery is overheated.

It is disclosed herein that a high energy density rechargeable batterymay usefully incorporate an internal sacrificial current interrupter toprotect the battery in the event of battery overcharge. The currentinterrupter is a film containing a gas generating compound interposedbetween the separator and current collector. The gas generating compoundis selected to have an electrolytic decomposition potential fordecomposition and production of the gas at a voltage less than theovercharge voltage safe limit for the battery in which it is employed.The gas generated upon decomposition delaminates the current interrupterfrom the battery, thereby interrupting current flow.

It is disclosed herein that a high energy density rechargeable batterymay usefully incorporate an internal sacrificial current interrupter toprotect the battery from thermal runaway resulting from overheating. Thecurrent interrupter is a film containing a gas generating compoundinterposed between the negative and positive current collectors. The gasgenerating compound decomposes to produce the gas when the batteryoverheats. The temperature at which the gas generating compounddecomposes is less than the temperature at which thermal runaway wouldresult. The gas generated upon decomposition delaminates the currentinterrupter from the battery, thereby interrupting current flow.

It is disclosed herein that a high energy density rechargeable batterymay usefully incorporate both an internal non-sacrificial currentlimiter and an internal sacrificial current interrupter to protect thebattery in the event of an internal short circuit. The sacrificialcurrent interrupter may be either voltage or temperature activated orboth. The current limiter and the current interrupter may both beincorporated into the same layer, so that the layer is non-sacrificialbelow a critical temperature or voltage and sacrificial above thecritical temperature or voltage.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate schematic representations of exemplaryconfigurations of film-type lithium ion batteries having one or more gasgenerating layers serving a current interrupters for protecting thebattery against overcharging and overheating in the event of an internalshort circuit.

FIGS. 2A-2E illustrate cross sectional views of prior art film-typelithium ion batteries (FIGS. 2A and B) and of film-type lithium ionbatteries as described herein (FIGS. 2C and D).

FIGS. 3A-3E illustrate cross sectional views of prior art film-typelithium ion batteries (FIGS. 3A and B) and of film-type lithium ionbatteries as described herein (FIGS. 3C and D).

FIGS. 4A-4C illustrate exemplary structures for the gas generating layer(8).

FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate exemplified Cell compositions.

FIG. 6 illustrates the various positive electrode formulations use inchemical decomposition voltage measurements.

FIG. 7 illustrates the resistance of Cell #2 at 3.6V vs graphite inrelation to the temperature increase. The resistance decrease about 10times with the increase in the temperature.

FIG. 8 illustrates the resistance of Cell #3 (positive electrode withthe CaCO₃ ceramic layer) at 0, 3.646, and 4.11, respectively, voltage vsgraphite in relation to the temperature increase. The resistanceincreases slightly for zero voltage, and dramatically for 3.646 and 4.11V.

FIG. 9 illustrates the resistance of Cell #4 (positive electrode withthe Al₂O₃ and CaCO₃ ceramic layer) at OV and 3.655V, respectively,voltage vs graphite in relation to the temperature increase. Theresistance increases slightly for zero voltage, and dramatically for3.655 V.

FIG. 10 illustrates the discharge capacity of Cell #1 (no any resistivelayer) vs the cell voltage at 1 A, 3 A, 6 A and 10 A.

FIG. 11 illustrates the discharge capacity of Cell #3 (85.2% CaCO₃ basedresistive layer) vs the cell voltage at 1 A, 3 A, 6 A and 10 A. The celldischarge capability decreases significantly with the increase in thecell discharge current with this particular resistive layer.

FIG. 12 summarizes the cell impedance and discharge capacities at 1 A, 3A, 6 A and 10 A and their corresponding ratio of the capacity at 3 A, 6A or 10 A over that at 1 A for Cell #1 (baseline), #3, #4, #5, and #6.The cell impedance at 1 KHz goes up with the resistive and gas-generatorlayer. The resistive layer has caused the increase in the cell impedancesince all cells with the resistive layer gets higher impedance while thecell discharge capacity depends on the individual case.

FIG. 13 illustrates the Impact Test.

FIG. 14 illustrates the cell temperature profiles during the impact testfor Cell #1 (baseline), #3, #5, and #6. The voltage of all tested cellsdropped to zero as soon as the steel rod impact the cell. All cells withthe resistive and gas-generator layer passed the test while the cellwithout any resistive layer failed in the test (caught the fire). Themaximum cell temperature during the impact test is summarized in FIG.15.

FIG. 15 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in the impact test forCell #1 (baseline), #3, #4, #5, and #6.

FIG. 16 illustrates the cell voltage and temperature vs the impacttesting time for Cell #6. The impact starting time is set to 2 minutes.The cell voltage drop to zero as soon as the cell is impacted. The celltemperature is shown to increase rapidly.

FIG. 17 illustrates the cell voltage and temperature vs the overchargingtime for Cell #1 (no any protection layer). The cell voltage increasedgradually up to 40 minutes and then decreased slightly and jumped to themaximum charge voltage rapidly at about 56 minutes while at the sametime the cell temperature increased dramatically to above 600° C. Thecell voltage and temperature then dropped to a very low value due to theconnection being lost when the cell caught fire. The overcharge currentwas 2 A until the cell caught fire and then dropped to about 0.2 A forone or two minutes and then back to 2 A because the cell was shorted.The cell burned.

FIG. 18 illustrates the cell voltage and temperature vs the overchargingtime for the cell with Cell #3 (CaCO₃ layer). The cell voltage increasedgradually up to 40 minutes and then rapidly increased to a maximumcharge voltage of 12V at about 55 minutes. The cell temperature rapidlyincreased to above 80° C. starting at about 40 minutes and thendecreased rapidly. The over charge current decreased significantly at55° C. and kept to 0.2 A for the rest of the testing time. The cellswelled significantly after the test.

FIG. 19 illustrates the cell voltage and temperature vs the overchargingtime for Cell #5 (Na₂O₇Si₃+Al₂O₃ layer). The cell voltage increasedgradually up to 40 minutes and then rapidly increased to a maximumcharge voltage 12V at about 75 minutes. The cell overcharge voltageprofile is very different from CaCO₃ base resistive layer, whichindicates the difference in the decomposition of Na₂O₇Si₃ compared withthat of CaCO₃. The cell temperature increased significantly at about 40minutes to above 75° C. and then decreased gradually. The over chargecurrent decreased significantly at 75 minutes and kept to 1 A for therest of the testing time. The cell swelled significantly after the test.

FIG. 20 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in the over charge test(2 A/12V) for Cell #1 (baseline), #3, #4, #5, and #6.

FIG. 21 illustrates the cycle life of Cell #3 (CaCO₃ resistive layer).The cell lost about 1.8% after 100 cycles which is lower than that ofthe cells without any resistive layer (˜2.5% by average, not shown).

FIG. 22 illustrates the cycle life of Cell #4 (CaCO₃ and Al₂O₃ resistivelayer). The cell lost about 1.3% after 100 cycles which is lower thanthat of the cells without any resistive layer (˜2.5% by average, notshown).

FIG. 23 illustrates the current profiles vs the voltage at roomtemperature for compounds (gas generators) containing different anionsfor potential use in rechargeable batteries with different operationvoltage. The peak current and voltages are listed in FIG. 24. The peakcurrent for Cu(NO₃)₂ was the highest while the peak current for CaCO₃was the lowest. The peak voltage for Cu(NO₃)₂ was the lowest while thepeak voltage of CaCO₃ was the highest. Therefore, Cu(NO₃)₂ may be usefulin lithium ion batteries with a relatively low operation voltage such aslithium ion cell using lithium iron phosphate positive electrode (3.7 Vas the typical maximum charging voltage). CaCO₃ may be useful in lithiumion batteries with a high operation voltage like lithium ion cell usingthe high voltage positive such as lithium cobalt oxide (4.2V as thetypical maximum charging voltage) or lithium nickel cobalt manganeseoxides (4.3 or 4.4V as the typical high charging voltage).

FIG. 24 summarizes the peak current and voltage for compounds containingdifferent anions.

FIG. 25 illustrates the current profiles vs the voltage at roomtemperature for the polymers (organic gas generators) with or withoutdifferent anions for potential use in rechargeable batteries withdifferent operation voltage. PVDF is included as the reference. The peakcurrent and voltages are listed in FIG. 26. The peak current forCarbopol, AI-50 and PVDF were very similar while CMC was the lowest. Thepeak voltage of Carbopol was the lowest while the CMC peak voltage wasthe highest. Therefore, Carbopol containing CO₃ ⁻² anion maybe useful inlithium ion batteries with a relatively low operation voltage such aslithium ion cell using lithium iron phosphate positive electrode (3.7 Vas the typical maximum charging voltage). CMC maybe useful in lithiumion batteries with a high operation voltage like lithium ion cell usingthe high voltage positive such as lithium cobalt oxide (4.2V as thetypical maximum charging voltage) or lithium nickel cobalt manganeseoxides (4.3 or 4.4V as the typical high charging voltage). Water is oneof CMC decomposition compound and will become vapor or gas above 100° C.

FIG. 26 summarizes the peak current and voltage for polymers with orwithout different anions.

FIG. 27 shows cell temperature and overcharge voltage profiles during 2A/12V overcharge test at room temperature.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Safe, long-term operation of high energy density rechargeable batteries,including lithium ion batteries, is a goal of battery manufacturers. Oneaspect of safe battery operation is controlling the reactions at theelectrodes of these rechargeable batteries during both battery chargingand discharge. As described above, electrical current flows outside thebattery, through an external circuit during use, while ions move fromone electrode to another within the battery. In some cases, overchargeoccurs and can lead to thermal runaway within the battery. Describedbelow are apparatus and methods associated with an internal currentlimiter that limits the rate of internal discharge in a rechargeablebattery when there is an internal short circuit.

A high energy density rechargeable (HEDR) metal-ion battery thatincludes an anode energy layer, a cathode energy layer, a separator forseparating the anode energy layer from the cathode energy layer, and ananode current collector for transferring electrons to and from the anodeenergy layer is described herein. The high energy density rechargeablemetal-ion battery is rechargeable and characterized by a maximum safevoltage for avoiding overcharge. The improvement comprises an interruptlayer activatable for interrupting current within the high energydensity rechargeable battery upon exposure to voltage in excess of themaximum safe voltage. The interrupt layer is sandwiched between thecathode energy layer and the cathode current collector. The interruptlayer, when unactivated, is laminated to the cathode current collectorfor conducting current therethrough. The interrupt layer, whenactivated, is delaminated from the cathode current collector forinterrupting current therethrough. The interrupt layer includes avoltage sensitive decomposable component for decomposing upon exposureto voltage in excess of the maximum safe voltage. The voltage sensitivedecomposable component evolves a gas upon decomposition. The evolved gasserves to delaminate the interrupt layer from the anode currentcollector for interrupting current therethrough. The high energy densityrechargeable metal-ion battery avoids thermal run away in the overchargeby activation of the interrupt layer upon exposure to voltage in excessof the maximum safe voltage for interrupting current therethough.Methods for using and making the high energy density rechargeable (HEDR)metal-ion battery are also described herein.

In some embodiments, the interrupt layer can include a voltage sensitivedecomposable component that evolves gas in an amount ranging from about1% by weight (e.g. 1 wt %) to about 99% by weight (e.g. 99 wt %).Further, the interrupt layer can include a voltage sensitivedecomposable component that evolves gas in an amount ranging from about30% by weight to about 90% by weight, including an amount ranging fromabout 60% by weight to about 80% by weight.

FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate schematic representations of exemplaryconfigurations of film-type lithium ion batteries having one or more gasgenerating layers serving current interrupters for protecting thebattery against overcharging and overheating in the event of an internalshort circuit. Gas generation is triggered by an elevation in voltagecaused by overcharging. FIG. 1A shows a configuration for a battery withan anode current collector 101, an anode energy layer 102, a separator103, a cathode energy layer 104, a voltaic interrupt layer 105, and acathode current collector 106. The configuration shown in FIG. 1B has ananode current collector 101, an anode energy layer 102, a separator 103,a first cathode energy layer 107, a voltaic interrupt layer 105, asecond cathode energy layer 108, and a cathode current collector 106.

FIGS. 2A-2E illustrate cross sectional views of prior art film-typelithium ion batteries (FIGS. 2A and B) and of film-type lithium ionbatteries with an interrupt layer (FIGS. 2C and D). More particularly,FIGS. 2A-2E illustrate the current flow through film-type lithium ionbatteries undergoing discharge for powering a load (L). FIGS. 2A and Cillustrate the current flow of film-type lithium ion batteries having anintact fully operational separator (unshorted). FIGS. 2B and Dillustrate the current flow of film-type lithium ion batteries havinggas generating layers serving as current interrupters, wherein theseparator has been short circuited by a conductive dendrite penetratingtherethrough. In FIGS. 2B and D, the cells are undergoing internaldischarge. Note that devices with unshorted separators (FIGS. 2A and C)and the prior art device with the shorted separator (FIG. 2B), currentflows from one current collector to the other. However, in the exemplarydevice with an interrupt layer, shown in FIG. 2E, having a shortedseparator, the activated gas generating layer 8 (FIG. 2D) hasdelaminated from the current collector and the current flow is divertedfrom the current collector and is much reduced.

FIGS. 3A-3E illustrate cross sectional views of prior art film-typelithium ion batteries (FIGS. 3A and B) and of film-type lithium ionbatteries with an interrupt layer (FIGS. 3C and D). More particularly,FIGS. 3A-3E illustrate the current flow through film-type lithium ionbatteries while its being charged by a smart power supply (PS) whichwill stop the charging process when it detects any abnormal chargingvoltage. FIGS. 3A and C illustrate the current flow of film-type lithiumion batteries having an intact fully operational separator (unshorted).FIGS. 3B and D illustrate the current flow of film-type lithium ionbatteries having gas generating layers serving as current interrupters,wherein the separator has been short circuited by a conductive dendritepenetrating therethrough. In FIGS. 3B and D, the cells are undergoinginternal discharge. Note that devices with unshorted separators (FIGS.3A and C) and the prior art device with the shorted separator (FIG. 3B),current flows from one current collector to the other. However, in theexemplary device with an interrupt layer, as shown in FIG. 3E, having ashorted separator, the activated gas generating layer 8 (FIG. 3D) hasdelaminated from the current collector and the current flow is divertedfrom the current collector and is much reduced.

FIGS. 4A-4C illustrate exemplary structures for the gas generating layer(8). FIG. 4A illustrates resistive layer having a high proportion ofceramic particles coated with binder. Interstitial voids between thecoated ceramic particles render the resistive layer porous. FIG. 4Billustrates resistive layer having a high proportion of ceramicparticles (80% or more) bound together by particles of binder.Interstitial voids between the coated ceramic particles render theresistive layer porous. FIG. 4C illustrates resistive layer having anintermediate proportion of ceramic particles held together with binder.The resistive layer lacks interstitial voids between the coated ceramicparticles and is non-porous.

The following abbreviations have the indicated meanings:

Carbopol®-934=cross-linked polyacrylate polymer supplied by LubrizolAdvanced Materials, Inc.

CMC=carboxymethyl cellulose

CMC-DN-800H=CMC whose sodium salt of the carboxymethyl group had beenreplaced by ammonium (supplied by Daicel FineChem Ltd).

DEC=diethyl carbonate

EC=ethylene carbonate

EMC=ethyl-methyl carbonates

MCMB=mesocarbon microbeads

NMC=Nickel, Manganese and Cobalt

NMP=N-methylpyrrolidone

PTC=positive temperature coefficient

PVDF=polyvinylidene fluoride

SBR=styrene butadiene rubber

Super P®=conductive carbon blacks supplied by Timcal

Torlon® AI-50=water soluble analog of Torlon® 4000TF

Torlon® 4000TF=neat resin polyamide-imide (PAI) fine powder

Resistance layer and electrode active layer preparation and cellassembly are described below.

In general, resistance layer preparation includes the following steps(first layer):

-   -   i. Dissolve the binder into an appropriate solvent.    -   ii. Add the conductive additive and ceramic powder into the        binder solution to form a slurry.    -   iii. Coat the slurry made in Step ii. onto the surface of a        metal foil, and then dry it to form a resistance layer on the        surface of the foil.

Electrode preparation (on the top of the first layer) generally includesthe following:

-   -   i. Dissolve the binder into an appropriate solvent.    -   ii. Add the conductive additive into the binder solution to form        a slurry.    -   iii. Put the cathode or anode material into the slurry made in        the Step v. and mix it to form the slurry for the electrode        coating.    -   iv. Coat the electrode slurry made in the Step vi. onto the        surface of the layer from Step iii.    -   v. Compress the electrode into the design thickness.

Cell assembly includes the following:

-   -   i. Dry the positive electrode at 125° C. for 10 hours and        negative electrode at 140° C. for 10 hours.    -   ii. Punch the electrodes into the pieces with the electrode tab.    -   iii. Laminate the positive and negative electrodes with the        separator as the middle layer.    -   iv. Put the flat jelly-roll made in the Step xi. into the        aluminum composite bag.

Impact testing of the cell battery includes the following (See FIG. 13):

-   -   i. Charge the cell at 2 A and 4.2V for 3 hours.    -   ii. Put the cell onto a hard flat surface such as concrete.    -   iii. Attach a thermal couple to the surface of the cell with        high temperature tape and connect the positive and negative tabs        to the voltage meter.    -   iv. Place a steel rod (15.8 mm+0.1 mm in diameter×about 70 mm        long) on its side across the center of the cell.    -   v. Suspend a 9.1+0.46 Kg steel block (75 mm in diameter×290 mm        high) at a height of 610+25 mm above the cell.    -   vi. Using a containment tube (8 cm inside diameter) to guide the        steel block, release the steel block through the tube and allow        it to free fall onto the steel bar laying on the surface of the        cell causing the separator to breach while recording the        temperature.    -   vii. Leave the steel rod and steel block on the surface of the        cell until the cell temperature stabilizes near room        temperature.    -   viii. End test.

The overcharge test generally follows the protocol below.

-   -   i. Charge the cell at 2 A and 4.2V for 3 hours.    -   ii. Put the charged cell into a room temperature oven.    -   iii. Connect the cell to a power supply (manufactured by        Hewlett-Packard).    -   iv. Set the voltage and current on the power supply to 12V and 2        A.    -   v. Turn on the power supply to start the overcharge test while        recording the temperature and voltage.    -   vi. Test ends when the cell temperature decreases and stabilizes        near room temperature.

Resistance Measurement Test protocol is as follows.

-   -   i. Place one squared copper foil (4.2×2.8 cm) with the tab on to        a metal plate (˜12×˜8 cm). Then cut a piece of thermal tape and        carefully cover the squared copper foil.    -   ii. Cut a piece of the electrode that is slightly larger than        the copper paper. Place the electrode on to the copper foil.    -   iii. Place another copper foil (4.2×2.8 cm) with tab on the        electrode surface, repeat steps i-ii with it.    -   iv. At this point, carefully put them together and cover them        using high temperature tape and get rid of any air bubble    -   v. Cut a “V” shaped piece of metal off both tabs.    -   vi. Attach the completed strip to the metal clamp and tighten        the screws. Make sure the screws are really tight.    -   vii. Attach the tabs to the connectors of Battery HiTester        (produced by Hioki USA Corp.) to measure the resistance to make        sure that a good sample has been made for the measurement.    -   viii. Put the metal clamp inside the oven, connect the “V”        shaped tabs to the connectors and then tightened the screw. Tape        the thermal couple onto the metal clamp.    -   ix. Attach the Battery HiTester to the wires from oven. Do not        mix up the positive and the negative wires.    -   x. Close the oven and set the temperature to 200° C. at 4° C.        per minute, and start the test. Record data every 15 seconds.    -   xi. Stop recording the data when the metal clamp and oven reach        just a little over 200° C.    -   xii. Turn off the oven and the Battery HiTester.    -   xiii. End Test.

The Cycle Life procedure includes the following.

-   -   i. Rest for 5 minutes.    -   ii. Discharge to 2.8V.    -   iii. Rest for 20 minutes.    -   iv. Charge to 4.2V at 0.7 A for 270 minutes.    -   v. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   vi. Discharge to 2.8V at 0.7 A.    -   vii. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   viii. Repeat Steps iii to vii 100 times.    -   ix. End test.

The discharge test at 1 A, 3 A, 6 A, 10 A includes the followingprotocol. The cell is usually tested in a chamber with a controlledtemperature, for example 50° C.

-   -   i. Rest for 5 minutes.    -   ii. Discharge to 2.8V.    -   iii. Rest for 20 minutes.    -   iv. Charge to 4.2V at 0.7 A for 270 minutes.    -   v. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   vi. Discharge to 2.8V at 1 A.    -   vii. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   viii. Charge to 4.2V at 0.7 A for 270 minutes.    -   ix. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   x. Discharge to 2.8V at 3 A.    -   xi. Charge to 4.2V at 0.7 A for 270 minutes.    -   xii. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   xiii. Discharge to 2.8V at 6 A.    -   xiv. Charge to 4.2V at 0.7 A for 270 minutes.    -   xv. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   xvi. Discharge to 2.8V at 10 A.    -   xvii. Rest for 10 minutes.    -   xviii. End Test.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skillin the art to which this disclosure belongs. In the event that there isa plurality of definitions for a term herein, those in this sectionprevail unless stated otherwise.

As used herein, “high energy density rechargeable (HEDR) battery” meansa battery capable of storing relatively large amounts of electricalenergy per unit weight on the order of about 50 W-hr/kg or greater andis designed for reuse, and is capable of being recharged after repeateduses. Non-limiting examples of HEDR batteries include metal-ionbatteries and metallic batteries.

As used herein, “metal-ion batteries” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which metal ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of metal-ion batteries include lithium-ion, aluminum-ion,potassium-ion, sodium-ion, magnesium-ion, and others.

As used herein, “metallic batteries” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which the anode is a metal or metal alloy. The anode can besolid or liquid. Metal ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of metallic batteries include M-S, M-NiCl₂, M-V₂O₅, M-Ag2VP2O8,M-TiS₂, M-TiO₂, M-MnO₂, M-Mo₃S₄, M-MoS₆Se₂, M-MoS₂, M-MgCoSiO₄,M-Mg_(1.03)Mn_(0.97)SiO₄, and others, where M=Li, Na, K, Mg, Al, or Zn.

As used herein, “lithium-ion battery” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of lithium-ion batteries include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂),lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄), lithium manganese oxide (LiMn₂O₄),lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO₂), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide(LiNiMnCoO₂), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO₂), lithiumtitanate (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂), lithium titanium dioxide, lithiumlgraphene,lithium/graphene oxide coated sulfur, lithium-sulfur, lithium-purpurin,and others. Lithium-ion batteries can also come with a variety of anodesincluding silicon-carbon nanocomposite anodes and others. Lithium-ionbatteries can be in various shapes including small cylindrical (solidbody without terminals), large cylindrical (solid body with largethreaded terminals), prismatic (semi-hard plastic case with largethreaded terminals), and pouch (soft, flat body). Lithium polymerbatteries can be in a soft package or pouch. The electrolytes in thesebatteries can be a liquid electrolyte (such as carbonate based orionic), a solid electrolyte, a polymer based electrolyte or a mixture ofthese electrolytes.

As used herein, “aluminum-ion battery” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which aluminum ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of aluminum-ion batteries include Al_(n)M₂(XO₄)₃, wherein X=Si,P, S, Mo, As, and others; and M=Fe, Ca, Mg, V, Cr and others; aluminumtransition-metal oxides (Al_(x)MO₂ wherein M=Fe, Mn, Ni, Mo, Co, Cr, Ti,V and others) such as Al_(x)(V₄O₈), Al_(x)NiS₂, Al_(x)FeS₂, Al_(x)VS₂and Al_(x)WS₂ and others.

As used herein, “potassium-ion battery” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which potassium ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of potassium-ion batteries include K_(n)M2(XO₄)₃, wherein X=Si,P, S, Mo, As, and others; and M=Fe, Ca, Mg, V, Cr and others; potassiumtransition-metal oxides (KMO₂ wherein M=Fe, Mn, Ni, Mo, Co, Cr, Ti, Vand others), and others.

As used herein, “sodium-ion battery” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which sodium ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of sodium-ion batteries include Na_(n)M₂(XO₄)₃, wherein X=Si,P, S, Mo, As, and others; and M=Fe, Ca, Mg, V, Cr and others; NaV_(1−x),Cr_(x)(PO₄F, NaVPO₄F, Na₄Fe₃(PO₄)₂(P₂O₇), Na₂FePO₄F, Na₂FeP₂O₇,Na_(2/3)[Fe_(1/2)Mn_(1/2)]O₂, Na(Ni_(1/3)Fe_(1/3)Mn_(1/3))O₂, NaTiS₂,NaFeF₃; Sodium Transition-Metal Oxides (NaMO₂ wherein M=Fe, Mn, Ni, Mo,Co, Cr, Ti, V and others) such as Na_(2/3)[Fe_(1/2)Mn_(1/2)]O₂,Na(Ni_(1/3)Fe_(1/3)Mn_(1/3))O₂, Na_(x)Mo₂O₄, NaFeO₂, Na_(0.7)CoO₂,NaCrO₂, NaMnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂, Na_(0.7)MnO₂, Na_(0.7)MnO_(2.25),Na_(2/3)Mn_(2/3)Ni_(1/3)O₂, Na_(0.61)Ti_(0.47)Mn_(0.52)O₂; VanadiumOxides such as Na_(1+x)V₃O₈, Na_(x)V₂O₅, and Na_(x)VO₂ (x 0.7, 1); andothers.

As used herein, “magnesium-ion battery” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which magnesium ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of magnesium-ion batteries include Mg_(n)M₂(XO₄)₃, whereinX=Si, P, S, Mo, As, and others; and M=Fe, Ca, Mg, V, Cr and others;magnesium Transition-Metal Oxides (MgMO₂ wherein M=Fe, Mn, Ni, Mo, Co,Cr, Ti, V and others), and others.

As used herein, “silicon-ion battery” means any rechargeable batterytypes in which silicon ions move from the negative electrode to thepositive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Non-limitingexamples of silicon-ion batteries include Si_(n)M₂(XO₄)₃, wherein X=Si,P, S, Mo, As, and others; and M=Fe, Ca, Mg, V, Cr and others; SiliconTransition-Metal Oxides (SiMO₂ wherein M=Fe, Mn, Ni, Mo, Co, Cr, Ti, Vand others), and others.

As used herein, “binder” means any material that provides mechanicaladhesion and ductility with inexhaustible tolerance of large volumechange. Non-limiting examples of binders include styrene butadienerubber (SBR)-based binders, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-basedbinders, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-based binders, poly(acrylic acid)(PAA)-based binders, polyvinyl acids (PVA)-based binders,poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP)-based binders, and others.

As used herein, “conductive additive” means any substance that increasesthe conductivity of the material. Non-limiting examples of conductiveadditives include carbon black additives, graphite nonaqueous ultrafinecarbon (UFC) suspensions, carbon nanotube composite (CNT) additives(single and multi-wall), carbon nano-onion (CNO) additives,graphene-based additives, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), conductiveacetylene black (AB), conductive poly(3-methylthiophene) (PMT),filamentary nickel powder additives, aluminum powder, electrochemicalactive oxides such as lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides and others.

As used herein, “metal foil” means any metal foil that under highvoltage is stable. Non-limiting examples of metal foils include aluminumfoil, copper foil, titanium foil, steel foil, nano-carbon paper,graphene paper, carbon fiber sheet, and others.

As used herein, “ceramic powder” means any electrical insulator orelectrical conductor that hasn't been fired. Non-limiting examples ofceramic powder materials include barium titanate (BaTiO₃), zirconiumbarium titanate, strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), calcium titanate (CaTiO₃),magnesium titanate (MgTiO₃), calcium magnesium titanate, zinc titanate(ZnTiO₃), lanthanum titanate (LaTiO₃), and neodymium titanate(Nd₂Ti₂O₇), barium zirconate (BaZrO₃), calcium zirconate (CaZrO₃), leadmagnesium niobate, lead zinc niobate, lithium niobate (LiNbO₃), bariumstannate (BaSnO₃), calcium stannate (CaSnO₃), magnesium aluminumsilicate, sodium silicate (NaSiO₃), magnesium silicate (MgSiO₃), bariumtantalate (BaTa2O₆), niobium oxide, zirconium tin titanate, and others.

As used herein, “gas generater material” means any material which willthermally decompose to produce a fire retardant gas. Non-limitingexamples of gas generater materials include inorganic carbonates such asM_(n)(CO₃)_(m), M_(n)(SO₃)_(m), M_(n)(NO₃)_(m), ¹M_(n) ²M_(n)(CO₃)_(x)and others and organic carbonates such as polymethacrylic[—CH₂—C(CH₃)(COOM)-]_(p) and polyacrylate salts [—CH₂—CH(COOM)-]_(p),and others wherein M, ¹M, ²M are independently selected from the groupconsisting of Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr, andZn; n is 1-3 and m is 1-4. In some embodiments, M is independentlyselected from the group consisting of an ammonium ion, pyridinium ionand a quaternary ammonium ion.

Layers were coated onto metal foils by an automatic coating machine(compact coater, model number 3R250W-2D) produced by Thank-Metal Co.,Ltd. Layers are then compressed to the desired thickness using acalender machine (model number X15-300-1-DZ) produced by BeijingSevenstar Huachuang Electronics Co., Ltd.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Preparation of baseline electrodes, positive and negative electrodes,and the completed Cell #1 for the evaluation in the resistancemeasurement, discharge capability tests at 50° C., impact test, andcycle life test are described below.

A) Preparation of POS1A as an Example of the Positive ElectrodePreparation.

i) PVDF (21.6 g) was dissolved into NMP (250 g); ii) Carbon black (18 g)was added and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 rpm; ii)LiNi_(0.5)Mn_(0.3)CO_(0.2)O₂ (NMC) (560.4 g) was added to the slurryfrom Step ii and mixed for 30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowableslurry; iv) Some NMP was added for the viscosity adjustment; v) Thisslurry was coated onto 15 μm aluminum foil using an automatic coatingmachine with the first heat zone set to about 80° C. and the second heatzone to about 130° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The final dried solidloading was about 15.55 mg/cm². The positive layer was then compressedto a thickness of about 117 μm. The electrode made here was designatedas zero voltage against a standard graphite electrode and was used forthe impedance measurement at 0 V in relation to the temperature, and thedry for the cell assembly.

B) Preparation of NEG2A as an Example of the Negative ElectrodePreparation

i) CMC (5.2 g) was dissolved into deionized water (˜300 g); ii) Carbonblack (8.4 g) was added and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 rpm; iii)Negative active graphite (JFE Chemical Corporation; GraphitizedMesophase Carbon Micro Bead (MCMB) and Synthetic Graphite (TIMCAL)(378.4 g in total) were added to the slurry from Step ii and mixed for30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; iv) SBR (solid content50% suspended in water) (16.8 g) was added to the slurry formed in Stepiii and mixed at 6500 rpm for 5 min; v) The viscosity was adjusted for asmooth coating; vi) This slurry was coated onto 9 μm thick copper foilusing an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to about70° C. and the second heat zone to about 100° C. to evaporate off thewater. The final dried solid loading was about 9.14 mg/cm². The negativeelectrode layer was then compressed to a thickness of about 117 μtm. Thenegative made was used for the dry for the cell assembly.

C) Preparation of Cell for the Evaluation

i) The electrodes were punched into the pieces with an electrode tab;ii) The positive electrode was dried at 125° C. for 10 hours andnegative electrode at 140° C. for 10 hours; iii) The positive andnegative electrodes were laminated with the separator as the middlelayer; iv) The jelly-roll made in the Step iii was laid flat in analuminum composite bag; v) The bag from Step iv was dried in a 70° C.vacuum oven; vi) The bag from Step v was filled with the LiPF₆containing organic carbonate based electrolyte; vii) The bag from Stepvi was sealed; viii) Rest for 16 hours; ix) The cell was charged to 4.2Vat C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.5C rate for 2 hours, thenrest for 20 minutes, then discharged to 2.8V at 0.5C rate; x) Undervacuum, the cell was punctured to release any gases and then resealed.The cell made here was used for grading and other tests such asdischarging capability test at 50° C., impact test, cycle life test andso on.

FIG. 7 presents the resistance in relation to the temperature increasefor the positive electrode collected from autopsying a cell with 3.6 V.The resistance decreases about ten times. FIG. 10 shows the dischargecapacity at the discharging currents 1, 3, 6, 10 A. FIG. 12 lists thecell impedance at 1 kHz and the capacity at 1 A, 3 A, 6 A and 10 Acurrents and the ratio of the capacity at 3, 6, 10 A over that at 1 A.FIG. 14 shows the cell temperature profile during the impact test. FIG.15 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in the impact test. The cellcaught the fire during the impact test. FIG. 17 shows the voltage andtemperature profiles of the cells during the 12V/2 A over charge test.The cell caught the fire during the over charge test.

Example 2

Preparation of CaCO₃ based gas generator and resistive layer, positiveand negative electrodes, and the completed Cell #3 for the evaluation inthe resistance measurement, discharge capability tests at 50° C., impacttest, over charge, and cycle life test are described below.

A) Positive POS3B as an Example of a Gas Generator and Resistive Layer(1^(st) Layer) Preparation.

i) Torlon® 4000TF (0.8 g) was dissolved into NMP (10 g); ii) PVDF (4.8g) was dissolved into NMP (˜70 g); iii) The solutions prepared in Step iand ii were mixed, and then carbon black (0.32 g) was added and mixedfor 10 minutes at 6500 rpm; iv) Nano CaCO₃ powder (34.08 g) was added tothe solution from Step iii and mixed for 20 minutes at 6500 rpm to forma flowable slurry; v) This slurry was coated onto 15 μm thick aluminumfoil using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set toabout 135° C. and the second heat zone to about 165° C. to evaporate offthe NMP. The final dried solid loading was about 1 mg/cm².

B) Preparation of POS3A as an Example of the Positive ElectrodePreparation (2^(nd) Layer).

i) PVDF (21.6 g) was dissolved into NMP (250 g); ii) Carbon black (18 g)was added and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 rpm; iii) LiNiv3C01/3M111/302(NMC) (560.4 g) was added to the slurry from Step ii and mixed for 30minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; iv) Some NMP was addedfor the viscosity adjustment; v) This slurry was coated onto POS3B(Example 2A) using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zoneset to about 85° C. and the second heat zone to about 135° C. toevaporate off the NMP. The final dried solid loading was about 19.4mg/cm². The positive layer was then compressed to a thickness of about153 μm. The electrode made here was designated as zero voltage against astandard graphite electrode and was used for the impedance measurementat 0 V in relation to the temperature.

C) Preparation of NEG3A as an Example of the Negative ElectrodePreparation

i) CMC (13 g) was dissolved into deionized water (1000 g); ii) Carbonblack (20 g) was added and mixed for 15 minutes at the rate of about6500 rpm; iii) Negative active graphite (JFE Chemical Corporation;Graphitized Mesophase Carbon Micro Bead (MCMB) and Synthetic Graphite(TIMCAL) (945.92 g in total) were added to the slurry from Step ii andmixed for 30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; iv) SBR(solid content 50% suspended in water) (42 g) was added to the slurryformed in Step iii and mixed at 6500 rpm for 5 min; v) The viscosity wasadjusted for a smooth coating; vi) This slurry was coated onto 9 μmthick copper foil using an automatic coating machine with the first heatzone set to about 100° C. and the second heat zone to about 130° C. toevaporate off the water. The final dried solid loading was about 11.8mg/cm². The negative electrode layer was then compressed to a thicknessof about 159 gm. The negative made was used for the dry for the cellassembly.

D) Preparation of Cell for the Evaluation

i) The electrodes were punched into the pieces with an electrode tab;ii) The positive electrode was dried at 125° C. for 10 hours andnegative electrode at 140° C. for 10 hours; iii) The positive andnegative electrodes were laminated with the separator as the middlelayer; iv) The jelly-roll made in the Step iii was laid flat in analuminum composite bag; v) The bag from Step iv was dried in a 70° C.vacuum oven; vi) The bag from Step v was filled with the LiPF₆containing organic carbonate based electrolyte; vii) The bag from Stepvi was sealed; viii) Rest for 16 hours; ix) The cell was charged to 4.2Vat C/50 rate for 8 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.5C rate for 2 hours, thenrest for 20 minutes, then discharged to 2.8V at 0.5C rate; x) Undervacuum, the cell was punctured to release any gases and then resealed.The cell made here was used for grading and other tests such asdischarging capability test at 50° C., impact test, cycle life test andso on.

FIG. 8 presents the resistance in relation to the temperature increasefor the positive electrode collected from autopsying cells with 0, 3.6,and 4.09 V. The resistance increases with the increase in thetemperature, especially for the positive electrodes obtained from thecell having the voltages 3.66 and 4V. FIG. 11 shows the dischargecapacity at 1, 3, and 6 A current and at 50° C. The cell capacitydecreases significantly with the increase of the current, indicating thestrong effect from the resistive layer. FIG. 12 lists the cell impedanceat 1 kHz and the capacity at 1 A, 3 A, 6 A and 10 A currents and theratio of the capacity at 3, 6, 10 A over that at 1 A. FIG. 18 presentsthe over charge profiles during the over charge test. FIG. 20 summarizethe cell maximum temperature during the over charge test and residualcurrent in the end of over charge test. FIG. 21 shows the dischargecapacity vs. the cycle number. The cell lost about 1% capacity that isabout 100% better than that (2.5%) of the baseline cell. FIG. 14 showsthe cell temperature profiles during the impact test. FIG. 15 summarizesthe cell maximum temperature in the impact test.

Example 3

Preparation of 50% Al₂O₃ and 50% CaCO₃ based gas generator and resistivelayer, positive and negative electrodes, and the completed Cell #4 forthe evaluation in the resistance measurement, discharge capability testsat 50° C., impact test, over charge and cycle life tests are describedbelow.

A) Positive POS4B as an Example of a Gas Generator and Resistive Layer(1st Layer) Preparation.

i) Torlon® 4000TF (0.8 g) was dissolved into NMP (10 g); ii) PVDF (4.8g) was dissolved into NMP (˜70 g); iii) The solutions prepared in Step iand ii were mixed, and then carbon black (0.32 g) was added and mixedfor 10 minutes at 6500 rpm; iv) Nano CaCO₃ powder (17.04 g) and Al₂O₃powder (17.04 g) were added to the solution from Step iii and mixed for20 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; v) This slurry wascoated onto 15 μm thick aluminum foil using an automatic coating machinewith the first heat zone set to about 135° C. and the second heat zoneto about 165° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The final dried solid loadingwas about 1 mg/cm².

B) Preparation of POS4A as an Example of the Positive ElectrodePreparation (2^(nd) Layer).

i) PVDF (21.6 g) was dissolved into NMP (250 g); ii) Carbon black (18 g)was added and mixed for 15 minutes at the rate of about 6500 rpm; iii)LiNi_(1/3)CO_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂ (NMC) (560.4 g) was added to the slurryfrom Step ii and mixed for 30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowableslurry; iv) Some NMP was added for the viscosity adjustment; v) Thisslurry was coated onto POS4B (Example 3A) using an automatic coatingmachine with the first heat zone set to about 85° C. and the second heatzone to about 135° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The final dried solidloading was about 19.4 mg/cm². The positive layer was then compressed toa thickness of about 153 gm. The electrode made here was designated aszero voltage against a standard graphite electrode and was used for theimpedance measurement at 0 V in relation to the temperature.

C) Preparation of NEG4A as an Example of the Negative ElectrodePreparation

i) CMC (13 g) was dissolved into deionized water (˜1000 g); ii) Carbonblack (20 g) was added and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 rpm; iii)Negative active graphite (JFE Chemical Corporation; GraphitizedMesophase Carbon Micro Bead (MCMB) and Synthetic Graphite (TIMCAL)(945.92 g in total) were added to the slurry from Step ii and mixed for30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; iv) SBR (solid content50% suspended in water) (42 g) was added to the slurry formed in Stepiii and mixed at about 6500 rpm for 5 min; v) The viscosity was adjustedfor a smooth coating; vi) This slurry was coated onto 9 μm thick copperfoil using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set toabout 100° C. and the second heat zone to about 130° C. to evaporate offthe water. The final dried solid loading was about 11.8 mg/cm². Thenegative electrode layer was then compressed to a thickness of about 159μm. The negative made was used for the dry for the cell assembly.

D) Preparation of Cell for the Evaluation

i) The electrodes were punched into the pieces with an electrode tab;ii) The positive electrode was dried at 125° C. for 10 hours andnegative electrode at 140° C. for 10 hours; iii) The positive andnegative electrodes were laminated with the separator as the middlelayer; iv) The flat jelly-roll made in the Step iii was laid flat in analuminum composite bag; v) The bag from Step iv was dried in a 70° C.vacuum oven; vi) The bag from Step v was filled with the LiPF₆containing organic carbonate based electrolyte; vii) The bag from Stepvi was sealed; viii) Rest for 16 hours; ix) The cell was charged to 4.2Vat C/50 rate for 8 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.5C rate for 2 hours, thenrest for 20 minutes, then discharged to 2.8V at 0.5C rate; x) Undervacuum, the cell was punctured to release any gases and then resealed.The cell made here was used for grading and other tests such asdischarging capability test at 50° C., impact test, cycle life test andso on.

FIG. 12 lists the cell impedance at 1 kHz and the capacity at 1 A, 3 A,6 A and 10 A currents and the ratio of the capacity at 3, 6, and 10 Aover that at 1 A. FIG. 14 shows the cell temperature profiles during theimpact test. FIG. 15 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in theimpact test. FIG. 18 shows the voltage profiles of the cell voltage andtemperature during the 12V/2 A over charge test. FIG. 20 summarizes thecell maximum cell temperatures in the over charge test.

Example 4

Preparation of Al₂O₃ and Sodium trisilicate (NaSiO₃) mixed based gasgenerator and resistive layer, positive and negative electrodes, and thecompleted Cell #5 for the evaluation in the resistance measurement,discharge capability tests at 50° C., impact test, over charge, andcycle life tests are described below.

A) Positive POS5B as an Example of a Gas Generator and Resistive Layer(1St Layer) Preparation.

i) Torlon® 4000TF (0.8 g) was dissolved into NMP (˜10 g); ii) PVDF (4.8g) was dissolved into NMP (60 g); iii) The solutions prepared in Step iand ii were mixed, and then carbon black (0.32 g) was added and mixedfor 10 minutes at 6500 rpm; iv) Nano Al₂O₃ powder (17.04 g) and NaSiO₃(17.04 g) were added to the solution from Step iii and mixed for 20minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; v) This slurry was coatedonto 15 μm thick aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine withthe first heat zone set to about 135° C. and the second heat zone toabout 165° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The final dried solid loadingwas about 0.7 mg/cm².

B) Preparation of POS5A as an Example of the Positive ElectrodePreparation (2^(nd) Layer).

i) PVDF (21.6 g) was dissolved into NMP (270 g); ii) Carbon black (18 g)was added and mixed for 15 minutes at the rate of about 6500 rpm; iii)LiNi_(1/3)CO_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂ (NMC) (560.4 g) was added to the slurryfrom Step ii and mixed for 30 minutes at the rate of about 6500 rpm toform a flowable slurry; iv) Some NMP was added for the viscosityadjustment; v) This slurry was coated onto POS5B (Example 4A) using anautomatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to about 85° C.and the second heat zone to about 135° C. to evaporate off the NMP. Thefinal dried solid loading was about 19.4 mg/cm². The positive layer wasthen compressed to a thickness of about 153 gm. The electrode made herewas designated as zero voltage against a standard graphite electrode andwas used for the impedance measurement at 0 V in relation to thetemperature.

C) Preparation of NEG5A as an Example of the Negative ElectrodePreparation

i) CMC (13 g) was dissolved into deionized water (˜1000 g); ii) Carbonblack (20 g) was added and mixed for 15 minutes at the rate of about6500 rpm; iii) Negative active graphite (JFE Chemical Corporation;Graphitized Mesophase Carbon Micro Bead (MCMB) and Synthetic Graphite(TIMCAL) (945.92 g in total) were added to the slurry from Step ii andmixed for 30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; iv) SBR(solid content 50% suspended in water) (42 g) was added to the slurryformed in Step iii and mixed at 6500 rpm for 5 min; v) The viscosity wasadjusted for a smooth coating; vi) This slurry was coated onto 9 μmthick copper foil using an automatic coating machine with the first heatzone set to about 100° C. and the second heat zone to about 130° C. toevaporate off the water. The final dried solid loading was about 11.8mg/cm². The negative electrode layer was then compressed to a thicknessof about 159 gm. The negative made was used for the dry for the cellassembly.

D) Preparation of Cell for the Evaluation

i) The electrodes were punched into the pieces with an electrode tab;ii) The positive electrode was dried at 125° C. for 10 hours andnegative electrode at 140° C. for 10 hours; iii) The positive andnegative electrodes were laminated with the separator as the middlelayer; iv) The jelly-roll made in the Step iii was laid flat in analuminum composite bag; v) The bag from Step iv was dried in a 70° C.vacuum oven; vi) The bag from Step v was filled with the LiPF₆containing organic carbonate based electrolyte; vii) The bag from Stepvi was sealed; viii) Rest for 16 hours; ix) The cell was charged to 4.2Vat C/50 rate for 8 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.5C rate for 2 hours, thenrest for 20 minutes, then discharged to 2.8V at 0.5C rate; x) Undervacuum, the cell was punctured to release any gases and then resealed.The cell made here was used for grading and other tests such asdischarging capability test at 50° C., impact test, cycle life test andso on.

FIG. 10 lists the cell impedance at 1 kHz and the capacity at 1 A, 3 A,6 A and 10 A currents and the ratio of the capacity at 3 A, 6 A, and 10A over that at 1 A. FIG. 14 shows the cell temperature profiles duringthe impact test FIG. 15 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in theimpact test. FIG. 20 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in the12V/2 A overcharge test.

Example 5

Preparation of 52% CaCO₃ and 48% PVDF based gas generator and resistivelayer, positive and negative electrodes, and the completed Cell #6 forthe evaluation in the resistance measurement, discharge capability testsat 50° C., impact test, over charge, and cycle life tests is describedbelow.

A) Positive POS6B as an Example of a Gas Generator and Resistive Layer(1St Layer) Preparation.

i) PVDF (23.25 g) was dissolved into NMP (˜250 g); ii) Carbon black(1.85 g) was added and mixed for 10 minutes at the rate of about 6500rpm; iv) Nano CaCO₃ powder (24.9 g) was added to the solution from Stepiii and mixed for 20 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry; v)This slurry was coated onto 15 μm thick aluminum foil using an automaticcoating machine with the first heat zone set to about 135° C. and thesecond heat zone to about 165° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The finaldried solid loading was about 1 mg/cm².

B) Preparation of POS6A as an Example of the Positive ElectrodePreparation (2^(nd) Layer).

i) PVDF (24 g) was dissolved into NMP (300 g); ii) Carbon black (12 g)was added and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 rpm; iii)LiNi^(0.4)CO_(0.3)Mn_(0.4)CO_(0.3)O₂ (NMC) (558 g) was added to theslurry from Step ii and mixed for 30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form aflowable slurry; iv) Some NMP was added for the viscosity adjustment; v)This slurry was coated onto POS6B (Example 5A) using an automaticcoating machine with the first heat zone set to about 85° C. and thesecond heat zone to about 135° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The finaldried solid loading was about 22 mg/cm². The positive layer was thencompressed to a thickness of about 167 μm. The electrode made here wasdesignated as zero voltage against a standard graphite electrode and isready for the impedance measurement at 0 V in relation to thetemperature.

C) Preparation of NEG6A as an Example of the Negative ElectrodePreparation.

i) CMC (9 g) was dissolved into deionized water (˜530 g); ii) Carbonblack (12 g) was added and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 rpm; iii)Negative active graphite (JFE Chemical Corporation; GraphitizedMesophase Carbon Micro Bead (MCMB) (564 g) were added to the slurry fromStep ii and mixed for 30 minutes at 6500 rpm to form a flowable slurry;iv) SBR (solid content 50% suspended in water) (30 g) was added to theslurry formed in Step iii and mixed at about 6500 rpm for 5 min; v) Somewater was added to adjust the viscosity for a smooth coating; vi) Thisslurry was coated onto 9 μm thick copper foil using an automatic coatingmachine with the first heat zone set to about 95° C. and the second heatzone to about 125° C. to evaporate off the water. The final dried solidloading was about 12 mg/cm². The negative electrode layer was thencompressed to a thickness of about 170 μm. The negative made was usedfor the dry for the cell assembly.

D) Preparation of Cell for the Evaluation.

i) The electrodes were punched into the pieces with an electrode tab;ii) The positive electrode was dried at 125° C. for 10 hours andnegative electrode at 140° C. for 10 hours; iii) The positive andnegative electrodes were laminated with the separator as the middlelayer; iv) The jelly-roll made in the Step iii was laid flat in analuminum composite bag; v) The bag from Step iv was dried in a 70° C.vacuum oven; vi) The bag from Step v was filled with the LiPF₆containing organic carbonate based electrolyte; vii) The bag from Stepvi was sealed; viii) Rest for 16 hours; ix) The cell was charged to 4.2Vat C/50 rate for 8 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.5C rate for 2 hours, thenrest for 20 minutes, then discharged to 2.8V at 0.5C rate; x) Undervacuum, the cell was punctured to release any gases and then resealed.The cell made here was used for grading and other tests such asdischarging capability test at 50° C., impact test, cycle life test andso on.

FIG. 12 lists the cell impedance at 1 kHz and the capacity at 1 A, 3 A,6 A and 10 A currents and the ratio of the capacity at 3 A, 6 A, 10 Aover that at 1 A. FIG. 14 shows the cell temperature profiles during theimpact test. FIG. 15 summarizes the cell maximum temperature in theimpact test. FIG. 20 summarizes the cell maximum cell temperatures inthe over charge test.

Example 6

Preparation of positive electrodes for chemical decomposition voltagemeasurements is described below.

Preparation of POS7B included the following steps: (i) Deionized water(−300 g) was mixed into Carbopol®-934 (19.64 g); (ii) Super-P® (160 mg)and LiOH (200 mg) were added into the slurry made in Step (i) and mixedfor 30 minutes at 5000 rpm; (iii) An appropriate amount of deionizedwater was added to adjust the slurry to form a coatable slurry. (iv)This slurry was coated onto a 15 μm aluminum foil with an automaticcoating machine with the drying temperatures set to 135° C. for zone 1and 165° C. for zone 2. The final dried solid loading was about 0.7mg/cm².

Preparation of POS8B included the following steps: (i) Deionized water(˜100 g) was mixed into AI-50 (19.85 g); (ii) Super-P® (160 mg) wasadded into the slurry made in Step (i) and mixed for 30 minutes at 5000rpm; (iii) An appropriate amount of deionized water was added to adjustthe slurry to form a coatable slurry. (iv) The slurry was coated onto 15μm aluminum foil with an automatic coating machine with the dryingtemperatures set to 135 for zone 1 and 165° C. for zone 2. The finaldried solid loading was about 0.7 mg/cm².

Preparation of POS9B included the following steps: (i) Deionized water(˜322 g) was mixed into 19.85 g CMC-DN-800H; (ii) Super-P® (160 mg) wasadded into the slurry made in Step (i) and mixed for 30 minutes at 5000rpm; (iii) An appropriate amount of deionized water was added to adjustthe slurry to form a coatable slurry. (iv) The slurry was coated onto 15μm Aluminum foil with an automatic coating machine with the dryingtemperatures set to 135 for zone 1 and 165° C. for zone 2. The finaldried solid loading was about 0.7 mg/cm².

Preparation of POS13B included the following steps: (i) Torlon® 4000TF(400 mg) was dissolved into NMP (4 g). (ii) PVDF-A (2.4 g) was dissolvedinto NMP (30 g). (iii) The two solutions were mixed and Super-P® (160mg) was added, then this was mixed for 30 minutes at 5000 rpm. (iv)La₂(CO₃)₃ (17.04 g) were mixed into above slurry and mixed together at5000 rpm for 30 min. The salts listed in FIG. 6 could be used in placeof La₂(CO₃)₃. (v) The slurry was coated onto 15 μm aluminum foil with anautomatic coating machine with a first heat zone set to 13° C. and asecond heat zone to 16° C. for evaporate off the NMP. Final dried solidloading was about 0.7 mg/cm².

Example 7

Electrochemical test for the positives electrodes coated with gasgenerator layers is described below.

The decomposition voltages of all resistive layers were measured withthree electrodes configuration (resistive layer as the workingelectrode, and lithium metal as both reference electrode and countelectrode) by Linear Sweep Voltammetry technology using VMP2multichannel potentiostat instrument at the room temperature. A 0.3cm×2.0 cm piece of the resistive layer as the working electrode, and 0.3cm×2.0 cm piece of lithium metal as both reference electrode and countelectrode were put into a glass containing LiPF₆ ethylene carbonatebased electrolyte (5 g). The scan rate is 5 mV/second in the voltagerange from 0 to 6V. FIGS. 23 and 25 shows the decomposition voltageprofiles of these compounds. FIGS. 24 and 26 summarizes the peak currentand peak voltage for each of the compounds tested. Implementations ofthe current subject matter can include, but are not limited to, articlesof manufacture (e.g. apparatuses, systems, etc.), methods of making oruse, compositions of matter, or the like consistent with thedescriptions provided herein.

Example 8

Preparation of CaCO₃ based gas generator layer, positive and negativeelectrodes, and the cell (#7) for the evaluation in the over charge testis described below.

A) Positive POS071A as an Example of a Gas Generator Layer (1^(st)Layer) Preparation.

i) Torlon® 4000TF (0.9 g) was dissolved into NMP (10 g); ii) PVDF (5.25g) was dissolved into NMP (˜68 g); iii) The solutions prepared in Step iand ii were mixed, and then carbon black (1.8 g) was added and mixed for10 min at the rate of about 6500 rpm; iv) Nano CaCO₃ powder (7.11 g) and134.94 g LiNi_(0.33)Mn_(0.33)Co_(0.33)O₂ were added to the solution fromStep iii and mixed for 20 min at the rate of about 6500 rpm to form aflowable slurry; v) This slurry was coated onto 15 μm thick aluminumfoil using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set toabout 90° C. and the second heat zone to about 140° C. to evaporate offthe NMP. The final dried solid loading was about 4 mg/cm².

B) Preparation of POS071B as an Example of the Positive ElectrodePreparation (2nd Layer).

i) PVDF (25.2 g) was dissolved into NMP (327 g); ii) Carbon black (21 g)was added and mixed for 15 min at the rate of about 6500 rpm; iii)LiNi_(0.82)Al_(0.03)Co_(0.15)O₂ (NCA) (649 g) was added to the slurryfrom Step ii and mixed for 30 min at the rate of about 6500 rpm to forma flowable slurry; iv) Some NMP was added for the viscosity adjustment;v) This slurry was coated onto POS071A using an automatic coatingmachine with the first heat zone set to about 85° C. and the second heatzone to about 135° C. to evaporate off the NMP. The final dried solidloading is about 20.4 mg/cm². The positive layer was then compressed toa thickness of about 155 μm.

C) Preparation of NEG015B as an Example of the Negative ElectrodePreparation

i) CMC (15 g) was dissolved into deionized water (˜951 g); ii) Carbonblack (15 g) was added and mixed for 15 min at the rate of about 6500rpm; iii) Negative active graphite (JFE Chemical Corporation;Graphitized Mesophase Carbon Micro Bead (MCMB) (945 g) was added to theslurry from Step ii and mixed for 30 min at the rate of about 6500 rpmto form a flowable slurry; iv) SBR (solid content 50% suspended inwater) (50 g) was added to the slurry formed in Step iii and mixed atabout 6500 rpm for 5 min; v) The viscosity was adjusted for a smoothcoating; vi) This slurry was coated onto 9 μm thick copper foil using anautomatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to about 100° C.and the second heat zone to about 130° C. to evaporate off the water.The final dried solid loading was about 11 mg/cm². The negativeelectrode layer was then compressed to a thickness of about 155 μm. Thenegative made is ready for the dry for the cell assembly.

D) Preparation of Cell for the Evaluation

i) The electrodes were punched into the pieces with an electrode tab;ii) The positive electrode was dried at ˜125° C. for 10 hr and negativeelectrode at ˜140° C. for 10 hr; iii) The positive and negativeelectrodes were laminated with the separator as the middle layer; iv)The jelly-roll made in the Step iii was laid flat in an aluminumcomposite bag; v) The bag from Step iv. was dried in a 70° C. vaccumoven; vi) The bag from Step v was filled with the LiPF₆ carbonate basedelectrolyte; vii) The bag from Step vi was sealed; viii) Rest for 16hours; ix) The cell was charged to 4.2V at C/50 rate for 8 hours andthen to 4.2V at 0.5C rate for 2 hours, then rest for 20 minutes, thendischarged to 2.8V at 0.5C rate. The cell made here was used for gradingand other tests such as over charge test.

FIG. 27 presents the overcharge voltage, cell temperature and ovenchamber temperature during the overcharge test (2 A and 12V). The cellpassed the over test nicely since the cell maximum temperature is about83° C. during the overcharge test. Implementations of the currentsubject matter can include, but are not limited to, articles ofmanufacture (e.g. apparatuses, systems, etc.), methods of making or use,compositions of matter, or the like consistent with the descriptionsprovided herein.

In the descriptions above and in the claims, phrases such as “at leastone of” or “one or more of” may occur followed by a conjunctive list ofelements or features. The term “and/or” may also occur in a list of twoor more elements or features. Unless otherwise implicitly or explicitlycontradicted by the context in which it used, such a phrase is intendedto mean any of the listed elements or features individually or any ofthe recited elements or features in combination with any of the otherrecited elements or features. For example, the phrases “at least one ofA and B;” “one or more of A and B;” and “A and/or B” are each intendedto mean “A alone, B alone, or A and B together.” A similarinterpretation is also intended for lists including three or more items.For example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C;” “one or more ofA, B, and C;” and “A, B, and/or C” are each intended to mean “A alone, Balone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, orA and B and C together.” Use of the term “based on,” above and in theclaims is intended to mean, “based at least in part on,” such that anunrecited feature or element is also permissible.

The subject matter described herein can be embodied in systems,apparatus, methods, and/or articles depending on the desiredconfiguration. The implementations set forth in the foregoingdescription do not represent all implementations consistent with thesubject matter described herein. Instead, they are merely some examplesconsistent with aspects related to the described subject matter.Although a few variations have been described in detail above, othermodifications or additions are possible. In particular, further featuresand/or variations can be provided in addition to those set forth herein.For example, the implementations described above can be directed tovarious combinations and subcombinations of the disclosed featuresand/or combinations and subcombinations of several further featuresdisclosed above. In addition, the logic flows depicted in theaccompanying figures and/or described herein do not necessarily requirethe particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirableresults. Other implementations may be within the scope of the followingclaim.

What is claimed is:
 1. A battery, comprising: an anode energy layer; acathode energy layer; a separator interposed between the anode energylayer and the cathode energy layer; an anode current collectorconfigured to transfer electrons to and/or from the anode energy layer;and an interrupt layer interposed between the anode energy layer and theanode current collector, the interrupt layer comprising a voltagesensitive material configured to delaminate the interrupt layer from theanode current collector by at least decomposing upon exposure to avoltage in excess of a maximum safe voltage for the battery, thedecomposition of the voltage sensitive material generating a gas thatcauses the delamination of the interrupt layer from the anode currentcollector, and the delamination of the interrupt layer from the anodecurrent collector interrupting a current flow through the anode currentcollector.
 2. The battery of claim 1, wherein the voltage sensitivematerial is porous and comprises: a ceramic powder defining aninterstitial space; a binder for partially filling the interstitialspace for binding the ceramic powder; and a conductive componentdispersed within the binder for imparting conductivity to the interruptlayer, the interstitial space remaining partially unfilled for impartingporosity and permeability to the interrupt layer.
 3. The battery ofclaim 2, wherein the voltage sensitive material is compacted forreducing the unfilled interstitial space and increasing the binding ofthe ceramic powder by the binder.
 4. The battery of claim 2, wherein thevoltage sensitive material comprises greater than 30% ceramic powder byweight.
 5. The battery of claim 2, wherein the voltage sensitivematerial comprises greater than 50% ceramic powder by weight.
 6. Thebattery of claim 2, wherein the voltage sensitive material comprisesgreater than 70% ceramic powder by weight.
 7. The battery of claim 2,wherein the voltage sensitive material comprises greater than 75%ceramic powder by weight.
 8. The battery of claim 2, wherein the voltagesensitive material comprises greater than 80% ceramic powder by weight.9. The battery of claim 2, wherein the voltage sensitive material ispermeable for transporting ionic charge carriers.
 10. The battery ofclaim 1, wherein the voltage sensitive material is non-porous andcomprises: a non-conductive filler; a binder for binding thenon-conductive filler; and a conductive component dispersed within thebinder for imparting conductivity to the interrupt layer.
 11. Thebattery of claim 10, wherein the voltage sensitive material isimpermeable to transport of ionic charge carriers.
 12. The battery ofclaim 1, wherein the voltage sensitive material is sacrificial atvoltages above the maximum safe voltage.
 13. The battery of claim 12,wherein the voltage sensitive material includes a ceramic powder thatchemically decomposes above the maximum safe voltage, and wherein thedecomposition of the ceramic powder generates the gas.
 14. The batteryof claim 13, wherein the gas is fire retardant.
 15. The battery of claim1, wherein the decomposition of the voltage sensitive materialtransitions the interrupt layer from an unactivated state to anactivated state, wherein the interrupt layer is laminated to the anodecurrent collector when the interrupt layer is in the unactivated stated,and wherein the interrupt layer is delaminated from the anode currentcollector when the interrupt layer is in the activated state.
 16. Amethod for interrupting a recharging process for a battery having amaximum safe voltage and comprising an anode energy layer, a cathodeenergy layer, a separator interposed between the anode energy layer andthe cathode energy layer, and an anode current collector configured totransfer electrons to and/or from the anode energy layer, the methodcomprising: delaminating, upon exposure to a voltage above the maximumsafe voltage, an interrupt layer interposed between the anode energylayer and the anode current collector, the interrupt layer beingdelaminated from the anode current collector to at least interrupt acurrent flow through the anode current collector, the interrupt layerbeing delaminated by a decomposition of a voltage sensitive materialcomprising the interrupt layer, the decomposition of the voltagesensitive material generating a gas that causes the delamination of theinterrupt layer from the anode current collector.
 17. The method ofclaim 16, wherein the decomposition of the voltage sensitive materialtransitions the interrupt layer from an unactivated state to anactivated state, wherein the interrupt layer is laminated to the anodecurrent collector when the interrupt layer is in the unactivated stated,and wherein the interrupt layer is delaminated from the anode currentcollector when the interrupt layer is in the activated state.